William Clark and the Superintendents of Indian Affairs in St. Louis
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Indian Policy
The United States Indian (Native American) policy during the 1800s included
the disposition of Indian land; administrating Indian-related claims;
providing a system for dealing with crimes by Indians and non-Indians
alike; regulating Indian trade including liquor; and “civilizing”
Native Americans.
The Military
The U.S. utilized its military to this end. Forts and posts were an
integral part of this system. Since 1789, Indian affairs were the responsibility
of the Secretary of War and the agency charged with implementing policy,
the Indian Department, was within the War department. Based upon the
British model, it assigned superintendents to deal with Indians.
After the War of 1812 lessened the Indian threat, a shift occurred where
territorial governors exercised more powers to deal with Indians. The
governors served as de facto superintendents of Indian affairs and appointed
their own agents. In light of this and other influences, Secretary John
C. Calhoun recognized a need to create an agency more adept at handling
all Native American issues, and reorganized it in 1824.
The Bureau
 The
department was officially called the Bureau of Indian Affairs, but generally
became known as the Office of Indian Affairs. Its first
superintendent was Thomas L. McKenney, whose staff in Washington were
few, but the field service numbered nearly
100 in the 1820s. In 1849 the Bureau of Indian Affairs was transferred
to the newly created Interior Department.
Initially, four superintendents existed. William Clark in St. Louis,
William Cass in Detroit, William Duvall in Florida, and James Miller
in Arkansas. The St. Louis Agency remained a distinct entity under William
Clark even after Missouri statehood, instead of responsibility passing
to the War Department or a neighboring territorial governor.
"Factories"  
The U.S. government in the beginning relied upon “factories”,
or government-owned trading houses, ran by the Purveyor of Public Supplies
and later the Superintendent of Indian Trade. These factories ideally
created harmony with Native American nations by spurring the fur trade,
supplying quality goods at a reasonable price, and subverting foreign
powers. “Factors”, the men who ran the factories, had to
just and literate men with the welfare of the Indian in mind. In the
early years agents and factors fulfilled the same role. Clark believed
in the system, but it ultimately failed in 1822 under financial strain
and private traders, such as the American Fur Company, took their place.
Agent Duties and Responsibilities
An agent, commonly former army officers, had a plethora of duties. He
was an ambassador, implemented policy, wrote correspondence, handled
accounting, generated reports, hired and supervised sub-agents and other
labor required to provide obligatory services, and sought redress of
grievances. He may have participated in treaty negotiations for the
government, quelled intertribal disputes, prevented Indians from returning
to ceded lands, and drove squatters off Indian lands. Agencies were
usually located near military fortifications or on a standard square
mile of land. These agencies drew people for obvious reasons.
Extreme power and a solemn duty rested on the shoulders of superintendents
of Indian affairs. Besides wrestling with the inevitable intricacies
of government service, they faced demands from their ever-increasing
domestic dependent Native American nations. Their actions (or lack thereof)
impacted greatly the development of the emerging country.
Who Were The St. Louis S.I.A.s?
St. Louis Superintendent of Indian Affairs include William Clark (1807-1838),
George Maguire—acting after Clark’s death (1838-1839), Joshua
Pilcher (1839-1841), David D. Mitchell (1841-1844, 1849-1853), Thomas
H. Harvey (1844-1849), and Alfred Cumming (1853-1855). Of all, William
Clark, known to the Indians as “Red Hair”, is easily the
most famous and longest serving.
William Clark
His two and a half years in the Corps
of Discovery and military service prepared him well. Clark held
several offices at once. President Thomas Jefferson appointed Clark
Brigadier General of Militia and Superintendent of Indian Affairs for
the Louisiana Territory. In 1813 he was appointed first governor of
the newly created Missouri Territory, and was reappointed three times,
until Missouri achieved statehood in 1821. He also was surveyor general
for Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas from 1824-25. His immense influence
with Native American nations in the War of 1812 no doubt aided immensely
and saved the upper Mississippi River territories for the United States.
He died of illness on September 1, 1838 in St. Louis—an explorer,
diplomat, advocate, businessman, collector and family man.
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